Project Summary

While many countries have adopted formal laws and institutions to combat corruption, high levels of corruption often persist. This project focused on the role of informal governance—unwritten rules, social norms, and hidden networks—in shaping behaviour and undermining formal systems. The research was based on case studies in seven countries: Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Tanzania, Uganda, Georgia and Rwanda.

In five of the countries, informal practices were found to operate as structured systems that maintain elite cohesion, enable rent-seeking, and resist external reform efforts. The study introduced the “3Cs” framework to describe these dynamics:

• Co-optation: Bringing actors into power networks in exchange for loyalty or support
• Control: Enforcing loyalty and discipline within networks
• Camouflage: Masking informal practices under the appearance of lawful conduct

In contrast, Georgia and Rwanda were examined as relative success stories. Their experiences underscore the importance of political leadership independent from entrenched networks and the ability to mobilise reforms through both formal tools and culturally resonant norms.

Key findings

• Informal governance is central to how public resources are allocated in many contexts, often more so than formal rules.
• The persistence of corruption is not due to weak laws but to the strength of informal networks that operate beneath the surface.
• The 3Cs framework helps explain how informal systems are maintained and why formal reforms often fail.
• In Georgia and Rwanda, the emergence of reformist leaders with autonomy from existing networks was key to driving systemic change.

Impact Highlights

• Project findings shaped donor programming, including DFID’s anti-corruption strategy in Tanzania and engagement with the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission in Kenya.
• Influenced policy discussions in Rwanda, including with the Office of the Ombudsman and Rwanda Governance Board.
• Stimulated collaboration with public authorities and donors in Uganda and Malawi to apply findings to practical reform work.
• Findings contributed to the design of new prevention and education programmes focused on understanding informal networks.

Methodology

The project conducted qualitative fieldwork across seven countries, drawing on interviews, document analysis and policy engagement. Country-level research was supported by local partners and used a shared analytical framework focused on mapping informal practices and networks across micro, meso and macro levels.